This report elucidates in detail different factors at SCU Samples for

Question: Examine about This report clarifies in detail various components at SCU ? Answer: Introducation This report clarifies in detail various variables at SCU that should be considered during the time spent appraisal of the adequacy of the control condition with exceptional reference to the activities of SCU. Moving further, this investigation clarifies five strong interior controls that are available in the present framework and decides the hazard that can be controlled utilizing the inner control forms. Furthermore, this examination additionally distinguishes and talks about assorted shortcomings in the present inner control of the organization SCU for deals just as exchange receivables. This examination therefore diagrams the need of the IT capacities in the bookkeeping framework for advancement of proficiency of the records receivables forms. Moreover, this examination likewise plots its significance capacities for location of inward control hazards that can influence the business and the manner in which the present inner control can alleviate differing distinguished dangers. Distinguishing proof elements at SCU that should be thought about The administration of SCU Limited (SCU) needs to think about adequacy just as productivity of activities, protection of dependability of budgetary announcing and upkeep of consistence with laws just as guidelines. So as to accomplish achievement, the unit the board needs to get information just as help concerning institutional controls, actualize pragmatic just as strong inside controls that are explicit to an unmistakable unit. Fundamentally, five distinct elements that SCU needs to consider incorporate control condition, hazard appraisal, control exercises, data and correspondence and checking (Romney and Steinbart 2012). Various segments of the control condition that should be inspected incorporate honesty just as moral qualities, promise to ability, reasoning just as working style of the administration, structure of the association, transfer of power just as obligation (Du and Huddart 2016). The appraisal of control condition of SCU Limited incorporate appropriate organization of the objective of protection of motorization, legitimate foundation of use programs, compelling administration of reward and compensation and numerous others. The factor of hazard evaluation under interior control includes examination of authoritative objectives, distinguishing proof of dangers and prioritization, the executives of progress, the board of management. What's more, evaluation of hazard additionally incorporates assessing outside sources, appraisal of reaction systems and self-evaluation instruments (Stair and Reynolds 2013). From that point, the administration of the partnership likewise needs to consider and attempt certain control exercises that are a piece of inward control. These control exercises incorporate composed approaches just as strategies, control methods notwithstanding powers over data framework (Drury 2013). What's more, inside control incorporate evaluation of data just as correspondence that incorporates appraisal of openness to data and assurance of various correspondence designs (Rainer et al. 2013). Other than this, the segment of observing incorporates human asset strategies just as practices. Distinguishing proof of five powerful interior controls in the framework There are sure compelling inward controls in the whole framework as can be comprehended from the interior control manual. Basically, the utilization of stock code while entering the all out amount conveyed in the PC framework can be viewed as successful. This is on the grounds that it helps in programmed recovery of stock code cost from especially the ace record of the selling cost. Subsequently, this coding of stock can be viewed as a successful arrangement of inside control that can help in setting cost against the products sold consequently. The utilization of the stock code at various conveyance notes just as at time of entering amount conveyed can help during the time spent appropriate support of recognizable proof of items and legitimate providing of cost estimate of the items. In this manner, this arrangement of powerful control can help in deflecting the danger of inappropriate distinguishing proof of a novel item and this stock code can go about as a recognizable proof name for singular things (Simkin et al. 2014). Once more, appropriate providing of cost estimates of the items is likewise conceivable just with exact distinguishing proof of the items having stock code. Moreover, the utilization of the organizations volume rating framework can likewise be viewed as successful arrangement of inner control. The way toward accepting approval from the business chief before use of limits to esteemed clients can likewise be viewed as a powerful inward control. The way toward getting endorsements from the business chief before giving out limits to clients can help in moderating the danger of dispensing limits to clients who are not qualified and fit for the offer (Mahama et al. 2016). In this way, utilization of deals volume examination report for volume rating can help in recognizable proof of esteemed clients that can repugnance of the danger of offering items at limits to non-entitled clients. Likewise, this procedure of gaining endorsement from the chief can likewise help in deflecting the danger of inappropriate refreshing of client limits. The way toward creating PC produced investigation toward the finish of every month grounded on solicitations that are gone into the PC framework can likewise be respected a compelling inside control. This PC created arrangement of examination can help in moderating the danger of essence of any sort of errors in the arrangement of exchange receivable just as deals the business procedure. This framework can check whether the whole procedure has a working potential, help in handling just as putting away the data as sees the deals just as exchange receivables (Grabara et al. 2014). The carefully embedded data from receipt subsequently can be utilized for age of investigation that again can be utilized for showing up at business choices. Accordingly, danger of mistake in handling, putting away and deciphering data can be maintained a strategic distance from by utilizing this specific PC created framework. The arrangement of planning of compromise of exchange receivables record to especially the indebted individuals control account present as a rule record can help in powerful control of deals and exchange receivables (Collier 2015). Once more, the arrangement of investigation of the exchange receivables account at the month end and appraisal of sums exceptional for more than 90 days by monetary controller of the firm SCU can likewise be respected to be compelling arrangement of interior control. The procedure of planning of compromise proclamation can be respected to be a powerful framework that can help in demonstrating just as recording the way that the record balance are fundamental in understanding. Accordingly, this procedure helps in relief of the danger of awkward nature by legitimate exploring of reports just as evaluation of investigation (Muhammad and Kusuma 2014). Once more, the execution of an activity plan with the end goal of interior control can help in enrolling all the subtleties as respects the sums that necessities to the gave to various dicey borrowers. Legitimate follow up of the structured activity plan is additionally embraced with the end goal of interior control. This thusly can help in legitimate observing just as control of exchange receivables and deals (Guragai et al. 2014). The utilization of the activity plan can help during the time spent posting all the undertakings that should be practiced in an offer to achieve hierarchical goals. Therefore, this arrangement of usage of activity plan and intermittent observing of the equivalent can help in moderating the receivable hazard by support of exercise in careful control, foresee and simultaneously forestall late or no installments, screen receivables at standard premise, run specific credit checks (Dwivedi et al. 2015). In this manner, the correct follow up of the activity plan can help in occasional checking of various records receivable altogether that grants in speedy acknowledgment of patterns in conduct of installments. Distinguishing proof and conversation of ten shortcomings in inward control There are shortcomings that can be seen in the arrangement of inside control for deals and exchange receivables. Investigation of the inward control manual of SCU Limited (SCU) mirrors the way that the organization utilizes manual conveyance notes for the shipment of its item tiles to its clients from the division of despatch. The manual conveyance notes are basically raised from the business request recording structures. This arrangement of manual conveyance notes can be viewed as a shortcoming of the inward control framework as this would incorporate human mistake and lead to incorrect monetary account (Wood 2016). Besides, this conveyance note can get altered in course of exchange or, more than likely can be controlled by people. Expansion to this, record of incomplete conveyance document is additionally kept up in which the conveyance note is enrolled as held for receipt where items are somewhat conveyed. This document is managed by the branch of despatch and deficient conveyances for longer than a month is checked. This arrangement of observing the conveyances can likewise be a viewed as a shortcoming of the framework as it neglects to convenient screen the incomplete conveyances. In this manner, there should be impact of innovation during the time spent keeping account. Be that as it may, this requires utilization of PCs, printers, faxes just as scanners (Heidari and Loucopoulos 2014). Additionally, bookkeeping experts likewise need to value the use of compelling programming. What's more, the organization utilizes a specific application program that has been inspected and exacting secret key control are there for accessing various projects, nonetheless, passwords are vital for the picking up admitta

The United States Government Essays - Rodham Family,

The United States Government U.S. Government (History) The United States Government An assortment of short reports all managing the United States Government. William Jefferson Clinton William Jefferson Clinton was conceived on August 19, 1946, in Hope, Arkansas. His dad, William J. Blythe III was killed in a car accident only two months before William's introduction to the world. At age four, William Jefferson Blythe IV was legitimately embraced by his moms second spouse, Roger Clinton, making him William Jefferson Clinton. At age 22 William got a Bachelor's qualification from Georgetown University. Only five years after the fact, he got his law degree from Yale. Not long after moving on from Yale, he turned into a law educator at the University of Arkansas. He didn't remain in one spot for long however, and in 1978 he turned into the Attorney General of Arkansas. From this political position, he moved higher up in the positions and in 1978 won the political race for the gubernatorial seat of Arkansas. In the 1980 races, nonetheless, William (Bill) was crushed by Republican Frank White. As the most youthful legislative head of Arkansas in 40 years, Bill at that point turned into the most youthful ex-representative in United States history. During the interval, Clinton was recruited by the law office Wright, Lindsey and Jennings. In the 1982 decisions, Mr. Clinton pursued the situation of representative with recharged life and vanquished occupant Republican Frank White. During the crusading for the political race a Time magazine article expressed: ?If Clinton does win, it could appear less a rebound than a vigilant mid-course remedy in the way of a youthful, brilliant political star.? Clinton proceeded to win the following two gubernatorial decisions in the territory of Arkansas. In 1988 he hosted the chance of a Democratic Get-together presidential assignment, however he would not run. At last, in 1991, Clinton declared that he was going to run for President of the United States. In the 1992 political race, Bill Clinton ran against Republican officeholder George Herbert Walker Bush and free Ross H. Perot. During the crusade, Bill met with some trouble when the media found that he had evaded the Vietnam draft, been unfaithful to his life partner, and smoked pot while going to Oxford. Bill assuaged the liberal-one-sided media by saying that he didn't have faith in the war, and he ?didn't breathe in.? Resistance mounted when journalists found that Clinton and his better half, Hillary Rodham, whom he wedded in 1975, had made some sketchy dealings over a bit of land alluded to regularly as Whitewater. In spite of the apparently difficult chances, Clinton won the political race, with 46% of casting a ballot Americans supporting him. Antonin Scalia, Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia was conceived March 11, 1936 out of an Italian larger part segment of Trenton, New Jersey. His dad, Eugene Scalia was an artistic researcher and a teacher of Romance Languages at Brooklyn College. His mom was a grade teacher. Scalia went to Xavier High School, a Catholic Military institute. He graduated, first in quite a while class, in 1953. One of his old buddies once stated: ?He was splendid, path above every other person.? He later studied History at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., where he again graduated first in quite a while class. Not long after leaving Georgetown, he joined up with Harvard Law School, where he was referred to around the grounds as a successful debater. From Harvard he earned a LL. B. Degree and in 1960 joined the Cleveland based law office Jones, Day, Cockly and Reavis. He was one of the most direct traditionalists on the staff and there too earned a notoriety for being a debater. Afterward, President Richard Nixon delegated Scalia to the situation of Part-time General Counsel in Executive Office of Telecom Policy. He was affirmed by Congress under the Gerald Ford organization for the situation of Assistant Attorney General responsible for the Justice Department's office of legitimate insight. Around then his activity was for the most part to offer guidance to the President and the Attorney General. In 1977 he turned into a Professor at the University of Chicago Law School. Antonin Scalia is presently a partner equity of the United States Supreme Court. He made his vow in 1986 and is the principal Italian-American Supreme Court Justice. He was a piece of President Ronald Reagan's push to make the legal executive framework increasingly preservationist. Mr. Scalia is extremely straightforward against racially based governmental policy regarding minorities in society programs and the ?Constitutional Right?

Random Admission Thoughts-Sept 2014 Edition - UGA Undergraduate Admissions

Random Admission Thoughts-Sept 2014 Edition - UGA Undergraduate Admissions Random Admission Thoughts-Sept 2014 Edition The application has been open for about three weeks, so the flow of documents, test scores and applications is starting to increase. As such, here are a few thoughts to remember both before and after you apply. For Early Action, we will be able to accept the October SAT (if you have requested UGA as one of the receiving schools when signing up), but we will not be able to use the October ACT. In addition, if you want us to be able to use your ACT scores, we need to have at least one ACT Writing score. If we do not have one, we cannot use the ACT. In addition, we have had a number of questions about ACT scores and rounding up. The ACT policy is the one that UGA follows. We import test scores on Tuesday and Friday mornings, and we do not always receive the scores when you do, so please be patient. About 1-2 business days after you apply, you should be able to see application data on your myStatus page (go to Check your Application Status. This will display the documents and test scores we have in our system. This is also where you can input your counselors email address so they can be sent information on how to submit the School/Counselor Evaluation form. If your school uses the Naviance or Parchment electronic document system, we are fine with documents being sent in this manner. We also accept GACollege411 transcripts. If at all possible, have documents sent electronically, as it goes into your file much easier and quicker. We superscore SAT and ACT scores, so there is no reason to wait until you see the test score results before you send us the scores. We are fine with test scores being sent to us before and after you apply, as we will match these electronically in our system. For documents (school/counselor evaluation, transcript, teacher recommendations, fee waivers, etc.), we heavily suggest sending these after you apply, as it is much easier to match them to an existing application. If sent before the application, we can match them, but it takes much longer to do so. If you send documents by fax, we will shred them. We cannot use faxed official documents, so please make sure they are sent electronically or by mail. As well, SAT/ACT scores MUST come from the testing agency. Do not aim for deadlines. I repeat, do not aim for deadlines. If you do so, you will make your counselor, your parents, and yourself very anxious. P.S. The EA application deadline is October 15, and the deadline for required supporting documents is October 22. We receive a number of emails/calls on how applicants should enter in information (should I enter in NHS in activities or honors?). There are no set rules for how to enter in information, so just do your best to give us details about you. While we do not use your activities/sports/work/honors in the EA decision, we do use this in our scholarship review and in the read process if you are deferred, so do not skip these sections. I hope this information helps, and Go Dawgs!

Anthropology is Quantitative Essay - 971 Words

There is a lot of conflict to the question â€Å"is anthropology a science?† A lot of this conflict leads from defining what a science is, in the dictionary science is, â€Å"a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws.† (Dictionary.com, 2011) Anything that can be studied is considered a science. Without science anthropology would be nearly impossible to study, science makes everything quantifiable. Anthropology should continue along its current path of being a science. Anthropology is quantifiable; by using science you can determine information much more precisely. Anthropology is absolutely 100 percent a science in every way†¦show more content†¦They then look for cars, people, or anything in the way that may affect them, that’s their background research. After that they decide there is a car coming so they should stop briefly, then the hypothesis is that if they stop, then proceed with caution they will be safe. They realize that the other car allowed them to go first because they stopped first and had been waiting, that is the result, now the conclusion is that if they get to the stop sign first, they get to leave the stop sign first. Without even realizing it, you have just used science to perform an everyday task, just as anthropologists do. By using science to help study anthropology, you reduce errors, perform simple steps, and make everything flow easier and better. As things flow easier and you reduce errors, everyday life becomes simpler, thanks to science. People would agree that being precise and accurate as possible is regarded better than the everyday guess or estimation. Since anthropology is a science, anthropology is quantifiable, meaning that results are much more accurate, because you are using a system to figure them out. By using science you are able to actually put a number, an exact number at that on your study. Anthropologists need science to stay exact, and not lie about the results. Without being exact they could be exaggerating the truth or lie, guessing how old the tribe members are, missing by 10 to 20 years, a mistakeShow MoreRelatedWhy An Independent Variable Affects A Dependent Variable888 Words   |  4 Pagesstudies human social groups and human interactions in the social surroundings. The experimental method, longitudinal studies, is a significant method of studying sociology. Sociologist use the experimental method, longitudinal studies, to obtain quantitative results during the testing period of a small c ontrol group. This allows the experimenter to formulate an empirical value by the activities observed throughout the experiment, delivering the outcome to be applied statistically. A empirical valueRead MoreGlt1 Task 4 Essay946 Words   |  4 PagesResearch Methods in Sociology and Anthropology By Western Governors University Abstract Sociology and Anthropology rely upon investigational and research techniques. While some of these may be similar they also differ. Each discipline has its own philosophical justification for their method but any and all approaches to study the society’s culture require some degree of fieldwork. Read MoreAnalysis Of Stephen A. Brighton s Article913 Words   |  4 Pagesinequalities between the Irish immigrants and the American community. Concepts: The author explains that, because archeology needs to differentiate and favor those in need, the issues in this type of investigation should be carried out using applied anthropology to solve modern social problems from collected data, theories and perspectives (Gezon and Kottak 2013). One of the many concepts explored in this article is ethnography. The author makes a clear, explicit distinction of the way archeology is beingRead MorePhilosophy, Phenomenology And Comparative Approachs851 Words   |  4 Pagesallows the quantitative and qualitative methods of sociology to be applied to religious groups and study individuals from within the group aspect. There is also the anthropology of religion approach. The anthropology of religion is the comparative study of religion across different cultures, societies and religious groups. The anthropology method studies the evolution of religion and how these religions evolve from one culture or society to the next. Durkheim thought that anthropology of religionRead MoreThree Disciplines1097 Words   |  5 Pagesbut if I had to choose between anthropology, psychology, and sociology, I would have to choose psychology. The reasoning behind it will be explained in detail but it can be broken down to three main reasons; being the first discipline with verified results and facts rather than unproven theories, having more post-high school opportunities considering that I wish to pursue a career in business, and being the most in-depth discipline. Psychology has more quantitative information, more interesting careerRead MoreAnimal Ancestry : The Field Of Anthropology Essay1271 Words   |  6 Pages Ryan Schueneman Intro to Anthropology Rachel McTavish 05 December 2016 Animal Ancestry Within the field of anthropology, there are various subsections that deal with specific branches of knowledge. Zooarchaeology, specifically, is a division of archaeology that deals with the remains of an animal after it has died. Much knowledge can be gleaned about various aspects of the animal itself, as well as the world surrounding it, through the study of zooarchaeology. The following will discuss the historyRead MoreThe Anthropology Of Welfare And Social Protection809 Words   |  4 Pagesdelivered the core second-year course of eight lectures, and facilitated eight MPhil seminars, in Economic Anthropology. I also wrote and delivered two lectures concerning the anthropology of welfare and social protection, supervised over forty students for the papers SAN1, SAN2, S5 and SAN8, and supervised an undergraduate dissertation. My effectiveness as a lecturer is attested by a quantitative evaluation, in which I received 88% for how interesting the material was, and 90% for how clearly this materialRead MoreThe Marketing Of Marketing Mix Essay1145 Words   |  5 Pageshave to use security navigation system in the car for their safety purpose. 2 METHODOLOGY 2.1 QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH COMPARED Qualitative analysis is primarily beta analysis. it s accustomed gain academic degree understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the matter or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative chemical analysis. analysis is in addition accustomed uncover trends in thought and opinions, and diveRead MoreSociology, Anthropology, By Lewis Binford932 Words   |  4 PagesThroughout the article, Archaeology as Anthropology, Lewis Binford argues that by looking at culture through a systemic view point our interpretations of the past can become stronger and will improve the field of archaeology and anthropology as a whole. His article is integral to the foundation of ‘New Archaeology’ because it gave a critical review of the short comings of a cultural historic approach, and provides suggestions of improvement that have been applied and even built upon in contemporaryRead More Sociology vs. Cultural Anthropology Essa y939 Words   |  4 Pages The research methods in sociology and anthropology are similar yet follow a specific set of guidelines for each. Each field approaches research in a similar fashion but the methodology and intentions can differ. The differences reflect the distinct differences that are present in sociology and anthropology. The way that an anthropologist approaches a problem and attempts to solve it is different than a sociologist because of the discerning basis of their knowledge. Some of the research methods

Essay Topics Technology Features

Essay Topics Technology Features The Chronicles of Essay Topics Technology Now you have a notion about what a proposal essay is and the way to select the proper topic to compose your own essay, below are some examples of proposal essay topics. The thesis will provide you with a guideline on the best way to go about with writing the essay. There are numerous technology essay topics, but you need to choose one which you feel comfortable writing about. Recent argumentative essay topics that are related to society is going to do. The New Fuss About Essay Topics Technology Just in order to supply you with a guideline, here is an illustration of a technology essay you may look at. Finding the proper articlesto support your persuasive essay is a little more challenging. Conclusion needs to be concise and logical. Conclusion when you are done placing all of your information in the body paragraphs, it's necessary for you to compose a conclusion. Who Else Wants to Learn About Essay Topics Technology? Now, you've got to compose a paper about education. Essay needs to be written in the words an ordinary person will understand. Introduction Your introduction needs to be compelling. A student should realize that the topic isn't self-explanatory. The New Fuss About Essay Topics Technology Folks are slowly forgetting that physical activity is a significant part of a balanced and healthful way of life. Political issues are the very best example. The chosen subject should offer enough chance to make an analytical and interpretive composition. There's no universal security legislation, and companies are free to modify their policies since they see fit. If you're on the lookout for information which you can't find in the sources I've included, you will want to do more research. We, as service providers with appropriate expertise in essay composition shall endeavor to give adequate pointers to allow you to compose a technology essay with your own thoughts and imagination. Now, options are somewhat more diversified because the world is rapidly evolving, therefore it can obviously be changed from an array of directions. Top Choices of Essay Topics Technology A superb debate article ought to have an analysis in addition to fair criticism of many problems. If you are in possession of a valid issue and you may offer sufficient arguments on it, then go with this. Also, deciding on the right topic is critical. If you're really stuck trying to discover a not too broad or narrow topic, I would advise attempting to brainstorm a topic that utilizes a comparison. Controversies are rather important too. Deciding on your topic isn't that easy. Privacy may be an issue at work, too. The Death of Essay Topics Technology The shortage of great support sources will end in a decrease grade. The very first step is where a significant number of students become stuck. In addition to the typical notes given in class, it's important to do your research and add the quantity of knowledge you have. Another reason is to observe how well students argue on distinct views and demonstrate understanding of the studied subject. New Step by Step Roadmap for Essay Topics Technology Knowing what it is you are going to chat about enables you to compose a consistent and convincing essay that readers may enjoy. You will discover a variety of argumentative essay topics but picking the perfect one might be the basic and the very first step to compose an influential essay. Neither did they spend every minute of their spare time checking the most recent updates on social networking. Our writers can help you find some type of direction by means of your essay topics and select the one which is quite convenient for you. Simply, you need to strive to make them interested in furthering their discussion independently even once they are finished with the reading the writing. You need to possess knowledge on the matter and also be creative in order to produce the essay interesting and convincing. You won't be able to crank out a 4,000-word essay in a week and receive an A. Life is much better than it was 50 decades ago. School should happen in the evenings. Year round school isn't a good idea. What Everybody Dislikes About Essay Topics Technology and Why Whether there are only two books that have any connection to your topic, it can be too narrow. So when you have zero internet on your computer, you could just apply your cell phone for anything you require. MP3 music ought to be free. Cell phones shouldn't be used while driving. The Lost Secret of Essay To pics Technology The next thing to do is to speak about the benefits of technology. There's always something good to discuss when it has to do with technology. Look at explaining what exactly technology is, have the very best research material so you won't spend an excessive amount of time researching from several sources. As discussed, there are several cons to technology, but there are a few pro's too. Students however have to be keen on the type of company to look for assistance from as some are cons. They are therefore likely to do a technology in education essay so as to understand how to use technology to gain knowledge.

Explanation of Hamlet’s Mystery (by Ernest Jones) Free Essays

pg. 101: Explanation of Hamlet’s Mystery by Ernest Jones Much as he hates him, he can never denounce him with the ardent indignation that boils straight from his blood when he reproaches his mother, for the more vigorously he denounces his uncle the more powerfully does he stimulate to activity his own unconscious and â€Å"repressed† complexes. He is there- fore in a dilemma between on the one hand allowing his natural detestation of his uncle to have free play, a consum- mation which would make him aware of his own horrible ishes, and on the other ignoring the imperative call for ven- geance that his obvious duty demands. We will write a custom essay sample on Explanation of Hamlet’s Mystery (by: Ernest Jones) or any similar topic only for you Order Now He must either realise his own evil in denouncing his uncle’s, or strive to ignore, to condone and if possible even to forget the latter in continuing to â€Å"repress† the former; his moral fate is bound up with his uncle’s for good or ill. The call of duty to slay his uncle cannot be obeyed because it links itself with the call of his nature to slay his mother’s husband, whether this is the first or the second; the latter call is strongly â€Å"repressed,† and therefore necessarily the former also. It is no mere chance that he says of himself that he is prompted to the revenge â€Å"by heaven and hell,† though the true significance of the expres- sion of course quite escapes him. Hamlet’s dammed-up feeling finds a partial vent in other directions, the natural one being blocked. The petulant irascibility and explosive outbursts called forth by the vexa- tion of Guildenstern and Rosencrantz, and especially of Polo- nius, are evidently to be interpreted in this way, as also is in part the burning nature of his reproaches to his mother. In- deed towards the end of the interview with his mother the hought of her misconduct expresses itself in that almost physical disgust which is so often the manifestation of in- tensely â€Å"repressed† sexual feeling. â€Å"Let the bloat king tempt you again to bed; Pinch wanton on your cheek; call you his mouse; And let him, for a pair of reechy kisses, Or paddling in your neck with his damn’d fingers, Make you to rav el all this matter out. † His attitude towards Polonius is highly instructive. Here the absence of family tie, and of other influences, enables him to indulge to a relatively unrestrained degree his hostility towards the prating and sententious dotard. How to cite Explanation of Hamlet’s Mystery (by: Ernest Jones), Papers

One Foot in Eden free essay sample

It is impossible to go through life without making any. What we choose can define us, can close off a part of our life that, had we chosen differently, could have led to something completely different. Many things can influence our choices, from morals, to peers, to experience. Usually, it is our own morals and opinions that decide what we do. How we were raised, what we were taught, and what we have picked up along the way. Family plays a large part in our decisions. Many people think about what someone in their family would do when faced with a difficult decision. In One Foot in Eden, Amy weighs the pros and cons of sleeping with Holland to get pregnant. She carefully thinks about what her husband would do if he found out. This may be a bad example, as she decides to sleep with him anyways. Also, simple things that we learn in school allow us to make informative judgments. We will write a custom essay sample on One Foot in Eden or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Peers also play a significant role. It is almost human nature to please others, or to fit in. Something we would not normally do, we do to make others like us. We might also refrain from acting a certain way that might prevent others from accepting us. This is why it is common that teens begin smoking, or doing some other dangerous habit, all to â€Å"be cool. † Our experiences shape many of our choices. If we know from experience that we will get a bad or painful response to an action, we avoid that action. We will also repeatedly make choices that produce a good or pleasant effect. We face many obstacles by trial and error, and if we have done something before, we know what actions elicit what responses. In conclusion, our choices, whether they are made from our experiences, our peers, or our morals, immensely affect our lives. The factors that influence our choices, be they good or bad, are directly related to the outcome of those decisions.

Chinas Reliance on The World Market †Economics Essay

Chinas Reliance on The World Market – Economics Essay Free Online Research Papers Chinas Reliance on The World Market Economics Essay China at this moment is experiencing the transition of its grain trade policy from a policy of self-sufficiency to that of somewhat greater reliance on the world market. On June 1 this year, Premier Wen Jiabao announces that China has listed liberalization of grain trading and pricing and offering subsidies to grain growers as among Chinas priority tasks for reforming its grain distributing system. (1) Earlier this year, it is reported that Chinas grain output falls for five years in a row to 431 million tons last year from a record high of 512 million tons in 1998 while its farmland is also down 7 percent from 1998 to about 100 million hectares. (2) To encourage production, China for the first time in its history directly subsidizes its rural grain farmers: about 1.2 billion US dollars from its grain risk fund is used to directly subsidize individual rural households. Such subsidy is just one policy in the package of massive supporting measures, which also includes setting minimum grain purchasing prices, strictly protecting farmland and lowering agricultural tax. Such measures affect hundreds of millions of grain farmers in 13 provinces, accounting for 69 percent of China’s grain production. (3) Also China begins to liberalize its stri ctly-controlled and inefficient grain system to break state-owned enterprises’ long-held monopoly over the grain market. Private grain companies now can buy grain directly from farmers and resell or process them, which was unimaginable years ago when the central government held a complete monopoly over the grain market. (4) This paper will look into why China, as a WTO member now, goes for such dramatic policy change, examine the policy tools that China adopts most recently in the progressive liberalization of its grain trade and how they will impact the local and international communities. Agricultural resources put China at a disadvantage in producing grain from a comparative economic advantage standpoint. (5) The per capita arable land and water resource levels in China are much lower than world averages (6), and the demand on the land for other crops, particularly for vegetables and fruits, is great. (7) So, even though technologically China is able to feed its people, the self-sufficiency grain policy is irrational from an economic standpoint. Despite the relative success of government controls, with domestic grain costs increasing and domestic grain prices surpassing those of the world market as early as in 1994, Chinese scholars began to question the rationality of the self-sufficiency policy. (8) Moreover, self-sufficiency carries a heavy social cost. It is possible to make simple estimates on the social cost of grain self-sufficiency. According to Long (9), a net loss of social welfare USD 6.59 billion in the year 2020 will occurassuming that the demand for grain has no price elasticity and there is no price margin. If there is a price margin of, say, 20%, the net loss of social welfare will go further up to USD 13.52 billion. In Mid-1998, China instituted a price support program for grain. (10) The price support policy had two pricesa higher protection price for quota grain and a lower reservation price for any amount of grain that a farmer may have wished to sell. The state grain bureaus that purchased the grain were required to sell the grain to the marketing system at a price that covered their costs as well. The intention was that the price support policy would have no budgetary cost and that consumers would pay the full cost incurred in bringing grain to the retail shop. Of course, there should be no objection to that since urban consumers have far higher incomes than the grain producers, and there is no reason why their consumption of grain should be subsidized. But neither is there any reason why consumers should pay more for their grain than if they were served by an efficient marketing system. (11) If the policy functioned as planned, consumers would pay higher prices than necessary. To permit the grain bureaus and subsequent grain handlers to cover their costs, private traders were prohibited from buying directly from farmers. The reason for this action can only be that the private sector can move grain from the farmer to the consumer at significantly lower cost than the state enterprises that, once again, were given a monopoly in the marketing of grain. If this were not the case, there would have been no reason to give the grain bureaus the monopsony in purchases from farmers. If the grain bureaus promptly paid the farmers the specified prices and accepted all the grain farmers offered, as the policy said they should, private traders would have had to pay same prices as the grain bureau paid for grain in excess of the quota. (12) In fact, government losses in the purchase and sale of grain went up sharply since the program implemented. In 1995-1996 (April to March), the cost to the government was 19.7 billion renminbi (RMB); in 1996-1997, 40 billion RMB; and in 1997-1998, in excess of 100 billion RMB. (13) The losses in 1997-1998 exceeded the total expenditure urban consumers made in purchasing grain in 1997. According to the urban household survey, the per capita expenditure on grain by urban household survey, the per capita expenditure on grain by urban consumers was 238 RMB (14). With an urban population of 370 million (15), a total expenditure of 100 billion RMB would equal a per capita cost for the urban population of 270 RMB, or somewhat more than the average expenditure on grain 1997. While realizing the heavy costs of self-sufficiency and the apparent benefit of grain liberalization, Chinese leaders worry about a number of factors that inhibits China’s movement toward greater reliance on grain imports: food security, farmer unemployment, long-term foreign payment ability, as well as economic efficiency. Since the international community has significant influence over these factors, analysis of China’s grain policy suggests how the international community can promote China’s full engagement in the international trading system following is accession to the WTO. China has a long history of farmer rebellions, most of them were triggered by famine; the disastrous famine of the early 1960’s left an indelible imprint on China’s psyche. (16) The lowest requirements for the food safety are that nobody, particularly the poverty-stricken population, starves to death due to the short supply of grains and that the grains issue can not influence the social stabilization. Chinese leaders doubt whether China’s food security can be ensured by relying on the world market, especially records show that the main grain exporting countries have poor policy records, and specifically in times of domestic crises, they may transfer internal shocks to importing countries. Also, since China is a country of vast population, Chinese leaders are concerned that a grain embargo will be used by main exporters as a political weapon against China.(17) It is not until China’s accession to WTO that they finally gradually let go such uncertainties. The general commitments inherent in WTO membership include unconditional most-favored-nation treatment required by Article I of GATTthat member will not discriminate between members. Another basic condition is national treatment required by Article III of GATTthat imports can not be discriminated against other than through border priced-based measure such as tariffs. (18) Under this commitments and condition China can seek tighter disciplines on the use of export restrictions by food exporters to ensure the security of supply. The risk of grain embargos is greatly reduced. And China can increase the extent it relies on world markets as its source of grain. Increasing the security of supply would also be in the in the interest of the exporting countries, which face demands greatly diminished by China’s lack of confidence in the security of supply. Even when members of main grain exporting countries do not honor the WTO agreement and decide to use embargo against China, any grain embargoes have only short-term effects due to the high elasticity of grain supply. Supplier countries that do not participate in an embargo can easily increase their production to provide China with grain over time. Moreover, with an apparently high ratio of grain stock to grain consumption, China is definitely safe from famine in case grain embargo is used against it. (19) The volume of grain stocks is an important index used to measure whether a country is safe or not in terms of grains. In general, the proportion of carry-over stocks of grains at the end of a grains year in the estimated total consumption of grains during the next year will be taken as the grains stocks safety coefficient. The UN Food and Agriculture Organization holds that the lowest scope for a countrys grains stocks safety coefficient is 17~18 percent. If the coefficient is smaller than that, in combination with the analysis on other factors, it can be regarded that this country is not safe in terms of grains. (20) For China, even when grain prices fluctuate in a large range, the safety coefficient of the grains stocks is still higher than 18 percent, the lowest value for the countrys grain stocks safety coefficient. (21) Underemployment and unemployment has always been a problem in China’s rural area. Whether grain liberalization will aggravate unemployment has been a subject of controversy. Those who advocate for liberalization argue that Chinese grain farmers can adapt themselves to more grain imports by converting agricultural activities to higher value-added and labor-intensive production as in Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. (22) As high value-added crops are more labor-intensive than grain, such a transition will provide a solution to the unemployment problem. Some also suggest the superabundance of rural labor can be dealt with by transferring most of them to non-agricultural sectors especially to the service sector. Such arguments are valid only when there are enough markets for higher value-added and labor intensive goods. However, China faces barriers in its exporting markets, and the extent of the barriers can be better understood by examining the duty burden that China faces in the export markets. It is clear that China faces some substantial tariff barriers and high tariff rates on its high value-added and labor-intensive agricultural products such as vegetables, fruits and fish products. The average tariff rate faced by China on its agricultural product exports is four times as high as the average tariff faced on its exports of other products. (23) The absence of reliable assurance of food security has been precluding China from opening up to the world grain market. To provide reassurance to China and boost Chinese confidence in the world grain market, greater market access from the international community therefore must be provided for China’s labor-intensive agricultural goods as well as other labor-intensive goods such as textiles. Skeptics of China’s grain liberalization also question China will be able to afford to import a large amount of grain. Since 1999 China has more than USD 140 billion in its foreign exchange reserve, the second highest in the world. (24) However, it is not clear if, in the long run, China will be able to sustain surpluses in its exchange reserve. There are several reasons behind such a pessimistic forecast. First, the rapid growth of China’s export is mainly attributable to â€Å"Processing trade†, in which countries import inputs and re-export processed goods. Between 1980 and 1997, normal exports did not increase as much as the average GDP growth. (25) The exports of â€Å"processing trade are mainly labor-intensive goods with value-added ratio of 10-15 %. (26) Because China has not realized processing trade industries are in fact â€Å"rootless industries†: The plants that produces goods for processing exports move to other countries due to the increase in the labor cost in China, as what had happened in Japan and East Asian Dragons. Unlike its predecessors, however, China will have difficulty in adopting the model of exporting higher value added intermediate inputs. Second, the long-term prospect of China’s capital account balance is ambiguous. As a result of its open-door policy, China has b een the second largest foreign direct investment (FDI) host since 1993. (27) Although decreasing profitability may prevent FDI from rising in the future, foreign investment in service sectors, such as telecommunication, banking and insurance, will rise if China lifts its restrictions on foreign investments. At the same time, the tremendous expansion of outward investment and illegal capital outflow explains why China’s foreign exchange reserve increased only slightly despite years of huge surplus. Given China’s unpromising outlook for its exchange reserve, some policy makers are pessimistic about China’s long-term balance of payment, although they tend to have confidence in China’s short-term balance of payment surplus. However, according to Long (28), such a view is not warrant as the expenditure in grain imports is predicted to be at most accounting for 2.5% of the exports by 2020. So there has to be other reasons other than balance of payment that make Chinese still uncertain about their ability to pay for grain imports. As China is on its path of rapid industrialization, imports of machinery and transportation equipment, raw materials, and high value services will inevitably increase rapidly with continued economic growth. Grain imports will have some crowding-out effects on other imports if foreign is a scarce resource and the opportunity cost of grain imports will be higher than nominal cost. (29) Still, even if China faces difficulties in keeping it s balance of payment, the Chinese currency can depreciate and lower domestic grain prices, reducing or halting grain imports at any time it The shift in the use of procurement prices as a means of taxing agriculture to a means of providing support suggests that policy transformation is well under way in China in light of food consumption change. China realizes the fact that over the past several decades the grain consumption structure has been changing: First, per capita grain consumption has been falling slowly since the early 1990s, offsetting some of the effects of population growth; second, the urban households consume much less grain than rural households. (30) Nevertheless, due to the expanding consumption in feed grains, seed and industrial input, research results suggest that the total grain demand will be growing at an average rate of 1.2 % between 1996 and 2020 and 1.1 % between 1996and 2030. (31) In order to be accurate, the above forecasts of grain demand take numerous factors into consideration, such as the urbanization rate, the consumption trends in the past 10 to 15 years and food consumption habits of ne ighboring countries in East Asia, etc. All of these factors indicate that per capita grain demand will only grow slowly (1.2 % and 1.1%) even if the Chinese economy further develops. (32) However, policies to increase prices received by farmers, like price support, even when successful, have limited effect on the returns to labor and capital engaged in agriculture. (33) Chinese officials did not learn from the similar serious and expensive agricultural policy errors made by the United States and the European Community until recently. (34) Rather than wasting money through high storage costs and payment to government employees, they realize that giving grain farmers direct subsidy and lowering agricultural tax do increase the income of farm people much moreeven though the government still applies price support, i.e., setting minimum purchasing prices. Such measures are implemented because increasing rural incomes is one of China’s prioritized commitments. While incomes have grown and poverty in rural China has been reduced substantially over the last 20 years, the income gap between rural and urban China has widened. (35) This has contributed to social tensions in rural areas and has become one of the major concerns for the government. While agriculture contributes almost one half to rural incomes, agricultural policy measures alone will have a very limited impact on rural incomes if they are not integrated with a wide range of other policies. In particular, the policy agenda has to include labor market reform to soften labor migration restrictions; education reform to provide the rural population with sufficient skills to compete on labor markets; fiscal policy reform combined with local administration reform to diminish the government-imposed burdens on rural households; and social policy reform to reduce the gap in access to social benefits between the rural and urban populations. China’s comprehensive reforms over the last 20 years have transformed its trade regime along with the economy as a whole. The reforms of the domestic economy have greatly increased the importance of market, rather than planning, in the allocation of resources. In fact, China has agreed to phase out restrictions on trading rights for most products. However, a small percentage of imports remains covered by the traditional monopoly trading system. Grain is a case in point. While such a system is allowed under GATT rules, there appears to be a strong case for, at minimum, reforming its operating procedures. It is because this system appears to involve the worst of both worldsthe poor information flows typical of command planning systems and the exploitation of market participants typically associated with poorly regulated markets. China realizes the importance of coordinating its domestic circulation system with the foreign trade system. Despite China’s commitment to distributing grain import quotas to private enterprises, the monopoly trading system will not allow it. Implemented in 1998, China’s domestic grain circulation system ensures the monopoly of the grain bureau by permitting no state-owned or private enterprises except the state grain bureau to purchase grain directly from farmers. If other enterprises can directly buy cheaper grain from the world market and sell at prices lower, the monopoly of the grain bureau will break down. Granting import quotas, thus, is not viable under the monopoly system to achieve the goal. For a broader distribution of import quotas, a reform of domestic circulation system is essential. That’s why, as mentioned in the first paragraph, China has started to progressively expand the scope of quota distribution to include private enterprises. Such a new move signifies an irreversible market reform of the country’s grain industry. As a member of the WTO, China controls over grain by the application of tariff rate quota. In accordance with Chinas promise on its entry into the WTO, during the transitional period, the tariff-rate quota for imported grains in 2004 will be no more than 22.15 billion kilograms; it is anticipated that the dependence on foreign trade will be 4.4 percent at most. During several years in the future, the annually average dependence on foreign trade in terms of grains will be 5 percent. (36) As the ratio of grain imports to total demand will expand to 10% or more by 2020, the amount of China’s grain import requirement will be about 60 million tons or more, significantly lower than 200 million tons suggested in the free trade scenario. (37) So with partial reliance, domestic grain prices would be higher than those of the world market, but lower than what would be if it adopted free grain trade. Although main grain exporters may prefer China to adopt grain trade policy than anything else, it is least likely to take effect. First, agricultural goods are far from being freely traded in the world. Even the United States, the largest exporter of agricultural goods, has a substantial level of government intervention when it comes to agriculture not to mention Canada. In this international framework, China can hardly go so far as to liberalize grain trade as a developing country. Second, free trade in grain does not constitute China’s national interest. China will not only exposed to the possible shock of price fluctuations in the world market, but also face the risk of serious rural unemployment, even in the absence of man-made attacks such as grain embargos. Third, other grain importers might not want China to adopt a free trade policy: The importing countries may object to the international pressure to open up their agricultural markets. Therefore it is understandable why Chinese government on the one hand let go of the old regime and progressively allows market force to take charge of its grain trade; on the other hand, however, it is still heavily involved by exerting powerful policy tools onto the market during the transition from planning-based regulations to free trade. As the world’s leading importer and exporter of grain, China has influenced the world grain market in many ways even with its long-held policy of grain self-sufficiency. As China now further liberalizes its grain trade, it will provide a larger market for grain exporters. There is no doubt that China, as the largest grain producer and consumer grain in the world, will become more powerful in affecting world food security. The question is how. China affects world food security through the price volatility it causes in the world market. There are two reasons for price volatility in the world market. First, almost every country, including China, imports to take advantage of the world market to stabilize its own domestic market. Almost no country relies solely on imports. Rather, countries vary the amount of grain imports according to the changes in their domestic grain prices. For this reason, the share of imports in the domestic market relative to domestic production is fairly small in most cases. Second, variations in the amount of imports in individual countries affect the world market prices since the world market is small relative to the total grain production. China swaps different varieties through the world market, and its enormous variations in import volumes usually affect world market prices. With China changing its trade policy and increasing its grain imports, the variations in China’s imports will be reduced substantially, mitigating the price volatility in the world grain market. Some researches pay attention to China’s grain imports and its impact on grain prices in the world market. Some researchers were alarmed by the prospect of China’s rising imports and its potential harmful effects on some of the poor grain importers. (38) However influential in policy-making, this view lacks credibility. Variation in China’s imports causes price shocks in the world grain market because suppliers can hardly anticipate the changes and adjust their production in time. If China relies more on grain imports, its import requirement will become more transparent and more predicable. Moreover, as mentioned earlier grain is an elastic commodity, main exporters will be able to expand their production to meet China’s increased import needs. Therefore, in the long-run the price of the world grain market will not soar even with China’s new grain policy. Besides direct economic benefits, the international community will also gain security benefits from China’s grain trade liberalization. China has been deeply involved in the global economy since the late 1970s as suggested by the amount of foreign trade in China. The twenty-year history of China’s integration into the international economy reveals that China has chosen to play under the current international rules along with the West, rather than to establish a new international framework that would challenge the existing rules. China has been involved with international organizations including the United Nations, the World Bank, the IMF and, eventually, the WTO. With deeper economic integration with the world market, the Chinese have realized the importance of interdependence and cooperation with other countries. Such a policy change will have important implication for China’s foreign policy. International and regional peace and stability will become a higher priority for China. When dealing with international affairs, China will be more cooperative with main grain exporting countries such as the United States. Consequently, the prospect of international cooperation will have positive consequences to certain extent for international security. Because grain is an important strategic good, a transition in grain trade policy will have important implications for China’s domestic and foreign policies. Because China is an indispensable player in the world grain market and a rising power in international affairs, China’s policy transition will also have major consequences for the international grain market and world security. Now, as it is liberalizing its grain trade, China requires smooth policy transition to bring a win-win situation to both China and the international community. If done successfully, both China and the international community will benefit from the policy change. Grain importers will gain a stable market for their product, a reduction in budget subsidies on agricultural goods, and a more predictable and reliable partner. China will be able to feed its people with lower costs and strengthen its international competitiveness. The policy transition, however, is dependent not only on China’s domestic circumstances but also on what the international community will do. In the international efforts to promote peaceful transition, the United States, Canada and Australiathe three major grain importers for Chinashould play a key role. Reference: 1.) china-embassy.org/eng/gyzg/t127570.htm 2.) http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-05/06/content_1454463.htm 3.) chinastudygroup.org/newsarchive/5603/ 4.) chinastudygroup.org/newsarchive/5941/ 5.) Cheng F. and Beghin J. C. (2003), â€Å"Protection and Comparative advantage of Chinese Agriculture: Implications for Regional and National Specialization†, in Scott D. Rozelle and Daniel A. Summer (eds.), Agricultural Trade and Policy in China, Ashgate Publishing Company. 6.) www.agecon.ucdavis.edu/facultypages/sumner/iatrc/chengfang.pdf 7.) www.usda.gov/oce/forum/ Archives/2004/speeches/wade0220.doc 8.) Cheng F. and Beghin J. C. (2003), â€Å"Protection and Comparative advantage of Chinese Agriculture: Implications for Regional and National Specialization†, in Scott D. Rozelle and Daniel A. Summer (eds.), Agricultural Trade and Policy in China, Ashgate Publishing Company. 9.) brookings.edu/fp/cnaps/papers/1999_long.htm 10.) Ke, Bingsheng (1998), â€Å"Grain Circulation and Market System Reform†, paper for Commemoration Seminar on the Twentieth Anniversary of China’s Rural Reform, Beijing, 1998. 11.) Johnson, D.G. (1999), â€Å"Agricultural adjustments in China: Problems and Prospects,† Office of Agricultural Economics Research, University of Chicago, Paper No. 96:03, August 10. 12.) Johnson D.G. (2003), â€Å"China’s Grain Trade: Some Policy Considerations†, in Scott D. Rozelle and Daniel A. Summer (eds.), Agricultural Trade and Policy in China, Ashgate Publishing Company. 13.) Crook, Frederick W. (1998), â€Å"Agricultural Policies in 1998: Stability and Change,† U. S. Department of Agriculture, China: Situation and Outlook Series, International Agriculture and Trade reports, Economic Research Service, WRS-98-3, pp. 9-10 14.) State Statistical Bureau (1998), China Statistical Yearbook 1998, Beijing: China Statistical Publishing House 15.) State Statistical Bureau (1998), China Statistical Yearbook 1998, Beijing: China Statistical Publishing House 16.) Kane P., (1988), Famine in China, 1959-61: Demographic and Social Implications, New York: St. Martins Press. 17.) eco.utexas.edu/Homepages/Faculty/Cleaver/357Lsum_s4_Paarlberg_FA80.html 18.) gatt.org/ 19.) www.ers.usda.gov/publications/wrs012/wrs012k.pdf 20.) www.econ.worldbank.org/files/2469_wps2689.pdf 21.) http://en.ce.cn/main/Insight/200409/06/t20040906_1728837.shtml 22.) card.iastate.edu/iowa_ag_review/fall_00/competitiveness.aspx 23.) Hertel, T., (1997), Global Trade Analysis: Modeling and Applications, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 24.) Hunag Jikun, (2003), â€Å"Trade Liberalization and China’s Food Economy in the 21st Century: Implication for China’s National Food Security†, in Scott D. Rozelle and Daniel A. Summer (eds.), Agricultural Trade and Policy in China, Ashgate Publishing Company. 25.) Naughton B., (2003), â€Å"China’s Trade Regime Entering a New Century†, in Scott D. Rozelle and Daniel A. Summer (eds.), Agricultural Trade and Policy in China, Ashgate Publishing Company. 26.) Naughton B., (2003), â€Å"China’s Trade Regime Entering a New Century†, in Scott D. Rozelle and Daniel A. Summer (eds.), Agricultural Trade and Policy in China, Ashgate Publishing Company. 27.) Hunag Jikun, (2003), â€Å"Trade Liberalization and China’s Food Economy in the 21st Century: Implication for China’s National Food Security†, in Scott D. Rozelle and Daniel A. Summer (eds.), Agricultural Trade and Policy in China, Ashgate Publishing Company. 28.) brookings.edu/fp/cnaps/papers/1999_long.htm 29.) brookings.edu/fp/cnaps/papers/1999_long.htm 30.) www.ers.usda.gov/publications/wrs012/wrs012l.pdf 31.) brookings.edu/fp/cnaps/papers/1999_long.htm 32.) agriculture.com/default.sph/agNotebook.class?FNC=ArticleList__Aarticle_html___8683___826 33.) Johnson, D.G. (1991), World Agriculture in Disarray, 2nd ed., London: Macmillan. 34.) Johnson D.G. (2003), â€Å"China’s Grain Trade: Some Policy Considerations†, in Scott D. Rozelle and Daniel A. Summer (eds.), Agricultural Trade and Policy in China, Ashgate Publishing Company. 35.) Johnson, D.G. (2000), Reducing the Urban-Rural Income Disparity in China, Office of Agricultural Economics Research, The University of Chicago, Paper: 00-06, mimeo. 36.) http://docsonline.wto.org/DDFDocuments/t/WT/ACC/CHN49.doc 37.) brookings.edu/fp/cnaps/papers/1999_long.htm 38.) Brown, Lester R., (1995), Who Will Feed China?: Wake-up Call for a small Planet, Norton Company Ltd. Research Papers on China's Reliance on The World Market - Economics EssayDefinition of Export QuotasAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaRiordan Manufacturing Production PlanInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesPETSTEL analysis of IndiaTwilight of the UAWMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductGenetic EngineeringNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of Self

Customer service skills every employee needs

Customer service skills every employee needs If you work with clients on a regular basis, you always need to be on your game. Being good at customer service means that when you’re grumpy, tired, or super-busy, you still project a friendly and professional tone at all times.  Even if you’re not working directly in customer service, per se, that doesn’t mean that customer service skills do not apply to you- it can never hurt to brush up on your people skills, no matter what industry you work in. Here are a few universal skills that every good employee should master if they want to make sure not to lose clients or customers for their business- or make big jerks of themselves at crucial moments.CommunicationIf you can’t communicate well verbally and in writing, then it’s time to learn. When you are representing a company, things like poor grammar, misspellings, excessive slang, and a too-casual tone really come across as unprofessional. Aim to express yourself clearly and articulately in whateve r format you are required to. Check and double-check all written communication, and take care with your words. Then, get better at it. Solid communication skills will make everything in your life- especially your job- go more smoothly.RespectThis one seems obvious but it’s worth repeating to yourself now and again: treat others as you would like to be treated. This goes for your boss, that annoying customer screaming at you about something out of your control, and the cleaning staff. Some simple things you can do  to show respect are using a person’s name, actually listening when they talk, not talking over them, not looking bored, and making eye contact. If these actions don’t come naturally, make an effort to thoughtfully add them to your daily interactions. Pretty soon, they’ll become habit.PatienceThey don’t call it a virtue for nothing. Don’t rush people out the door, off the phone, or out of your cubicle without making sure they feel heard. Giving slower service or taking a bit of extra time is sometimes the smartest, most effective (and efficient) way to work- even when you just want to move on to the next task. Stay focused and show that you are paying attention. Give people your full concentration (please, please, don’t check your phone when someone is talking to you) and repeat back key details to demonstrate that you are listening and comprehending.KnowledgeKnow your job, your company, and your product inside out. Never be the person who doesn’t have the answer to a question- if it isn’t your department, you should know off the top of your head the right person to contact for the answer. And, of course, you should be a total  expert when it comes to your company role and responsibilities. Know everything there is to know so that if anyone comes to you with a problem you don’t have to tell them you aren’t familiar with some aspect of your job.AdaptabilityGet better at re ading people. What do they want, exactly, to happen from your interaction? And how do they want to be dealt with or addressed? Every person- customer or boss- comes with his or her set of personal quirks. It’s never about cookie-cutter solutions. Your approach for dealing with people must adapt to the specific situation. If you’re too rigid, you’ll seem fake and uncaring.CreativityBeing able to find workaround solutions and think outside of the box to solve a problem is a huge asset to any career. Cultivate your ability to think of something, anything, to help out- even when the situation seems hopeless. Stay tenacious and positive and work through it until a resolution comes to you. Even if your solution isn’t the answer, everyone will admire your dedication. When people see you are making an honest effort, they are very appreciative. You’ll come out looking like a true professional.

The Impact of Nuclear Weapons on Humans and Environment Research Paper

The Impact of Nuclear Weapons on Humans and Environment - Research Paper Example Chemical weapons have known to be mainly unproductive within combat; biological weapons have not been positioned at some major level. Both forms must be better selected as weapons of fear against residents and weapons of threat for armed forces. Conditions of their transportation method fluctuate very much from those for nuclear weapons. They are capable of causing significant apprehension, fright, and mental illness without perimeters in huge elements of the people. Accumulation of biological weapons is not feasible for an extensive time scale. Merely nuclear weapons are totally indiscriminate by their unstable influence, heat emission as well as radioactivity, and only they should â€Å"therefore be called a weapon of mass destruction† (Croddy et al, 2004). From the end of the Second World War, there have been many settlements focusing on the constraints, declines, and eradication of alleged weapons of mass destruction along with their delivery systems. A number of the settl ements are mutual, some multilateral, or, in exceptional cases, global. In this paper, chemical, nuclear, and biological weapons will be examined with stress on the standards to eradicate them (Busch & Joyner, 2009). Literature Review By their character, chemical weapons have a comparatively inadequate range: they form local instead of international security issues and decrease the pace of functions. In this respect, they are militarily more similar to conservative weaponry as compared to nuclear or biological arsenal (Hashmi & Lee, 2004). Even lengthened utilization of chemical weapons had no significant effect on results of wars, had just local achievements and created conflicts to no use. Due to these and other reasons, it is hard to observe why they are there to begin with. Nonetheless, they had been developed in huge amounts, and humanity has to cope with their very expensive eradication. Impact on Humans Not only scientists should be blamed for their creation, fabrication, uti lization, and also for the removal of chemical arsenal; armed forces and politicians also claimed their creation. On the other hand, people need the aid of scientists for the complicated task of neutralising or removing them (Kort & Nolan, 2010). The utilization of biological means as war tools has constantly had a doubly unfavourable world opinion in comparison with chemical warfare. A SIPRI Monograph (Prelas, 2005) explains, along with other issues, the varying view of biological and toxin warfare means, the fresh invention of biological weapons, the altering position of toxin weaponry, a latest production of vaccines to be used against biological as well as toxin artillery, and its inferences. Allegations that biological means have been applied as warheads of battle can be seen in both the printed accounts as well as within the artwork of a number of early societies. At some point in 300 BC, the Greeks contaminated the wells and other supplies of drinking water of their rivals wi th the dead bodies of animals. Afterwards, the Romans and Persians applied the similar methods. During 1155, in a battle in Tortola, Italy, Barbarossa widened the possibility of biological combat, utilizing the corpses of dead fighters along with animals to contaminate drinking water. During the year 1863, in the US Civil War, General Johnson did the same with the dead bodies of sheep as well as pigs to contaminate d

How are the issues presented in Barn Burning still relevant in the Research Paper

How are the issues presented in Barn Burning still relevant in the recent history of the United States - Research Paper Example There was a time when the African Americans had not been granted the human rights equivalent to their white counterparts. This segregation prevailed in every department and even in public places including hospitals, parks, railway stations and in public transport, where the Blacks were bound to vacant the seats in the buses for the whites as a token of their so called superiority. The Blacks were not allowed to even sit in buses and other public places alongside the white people, and even had to vacant their seats at buses provided any white person entered in a bus with no seat to sit in. (Parks, 1992) However, time turned drastic change, and the movements of the Black community to win equal rights for them turned out successful, and the segregation of the races at schools, public places and even public offices observed complete and unconditional eradication. The African American students used to seek education at segregated schools separate from the whites. Somehow, the ethnic and r acial discrimination witnessed the gradual eradication from the very face of the US society, where the individuals belonging to every races and ethnic group observed social justice and equality in the country. Consequently, the door of opportunities looked wide open for all and sundry in the country, and the Black could study, play, work, travel and dine along with the white people in the aftermath of the human rights movement launched by Martin Luther, Malcolm X, Rosa Park and several other Black leaders. However, according to Faulkner, the white maintained serious reservations about the attitude and behavior of the African Americans due to the very reality that they appeared to be far more aggressive, antagonist and revengeful during their conflict with the whites, and leave no stone unturned to take revenge of their humiliation particularly at the hands of the members of white Anglo Saxon Population (WASP). The same happened in the story under analysis where Abner Snopes, the mem ber of Black community, always underwent humiliation at the hands of his master(s) because of his extremely sluggish and laggard nature. Instead of complying with the orders of his master, and paying due heed to his professional responsibilities of looking after the barn, crops and cattle, Abner appears to be spending most of his time in taking rest as well as getting involved in chit chat with family members and friends. Thus, he transfers the duties assigned to him to his daughters, which are not in a position to perform the same in a proper manner. It not only infuriates the masters, but also paves the way towards Abner’s insult and humiliation. Somehow, instead to mending his ways, Abner turns reactionary and conspiringly set the barns under his supervision to fire before leaving the place he has been working. Answer 2: Since Faulkner has observed several incidents regarding the Black people’s turning out reactionary, the writer is of the view that such an irrespon sible attitude of the African Americans not only frightens the white community, but also they are reluctant to hire the services of the Blacks for any purpose. Actually the white community had displayed their hatred for the Blacks in all social institutions provided they considered them as their slaves and the progeny of their old slaves, which should be treated keeping in mind their old past. It is therefore

Impact of Air Power Theory in WW2

Impact of Air Power Theory in WW2 Did â€Å"air power theory† do more harm than good before the outbreak of â€Å"and during† the Second World War? This essay will examine the meaning and impact of â€Å"air power theory†, a theory which took shape after World War One, which predicted that air power would be the single most important factor in the outcome of future wars. We will briefly examine the impact this theory had on the interwar Military planning and strategies of the major powers, as well as the influence of air power theory during the Second World War itself. The first part of our essay looks at what â€Å"air power theory† is, we shall look at the two major air power theorists, Giulio Douhet[1] and Billy Mitchell[2] and examine the differences and similarities between the two. Secondly we shall examine the negative impact of the â€Å"air power theory†, both in its implementation by the US and Britain and the shortcomings of the theory as demonstrated during the Second World War. The third part is concerned with the successful implementation of air power theory by the US and Britain before and dur ing the Second World War which led to positive military outcomes for the respective nations during the War. Finally we will attempt to conclude on whether the overall impact of â€Å"air power theory† during this time period can be judged positively or negatively. The most famous of the air power theorists, General Giulio Douhet was a passionate advocate on the fundamental importance and potentially revolutionary application of air power, specifically strategic bombing, as the most important means to win future wars. Douhet served with the Italian armed forces in Libya during the Italy – Turkey war of 1911 and during World War One, during which time aircraft were being used for the first time in military engagements. In 1921 he published â€Å"The Command of the Air† , arguably one of the most important works in air power theory and a endorsement of the power of precision bombing to win quick, decisive but devastating future wars. â€Å"I have maintained, and continue to do so, that in the wars to come the decisive field of action will be the aerial field†[3] It is not necessary to go into complex detail regarding Douhet’s theories of war, as we may summarise them into five key points. Firstly Douhet stated that modern and future warfare would give no distinction between civilian and combatant, that the previously taboo targeting of civilians and civilian infrastructure would be a thing of the past. Secondly, Douhet believed, no doubt influenced by his experiences from the First World War, that a quick, decisive victory using purely ground forces was no longer possible. Thirdly, that there was at the time, and most importantly for Douhet, would never be an effective anti aircraft measure that could prevent heavy strategic bombing from destroying its target. â€Å"Consequently I say, no aerial defence, because it is practically useless†[4] . Following on from this point, and arguably the most controversial in terms of the suffering it was seen to have led to, Douhet stated that the only way to defend against an enemy strategic bombing and to ultimately win a war was to launch a massive bombing campaign that would devastate the target’s government, industrial infrastructure and ability to make war, as well as so demoralising the enemy population that the shattered civilian population would force their Government to sue for peace or surrender unconditionally. Finally, and sharing a similar viewpoint with Mitchell, [5] there was a need for a nation’s air force to be completely independent of both the army and navy, and to constantly maintain a state of readiness in the event of needing to deal the knockout blow to the enemy. [6] Although borrowing many of his ideas from Douhet and others, American General Billy Mitchell did combine many air power theories at the time to create a structured, well thought air power theory which some might argue was more comprehensive and realistic than the ideas of Douhet.[7] Like Douhet, Mitchell wanted a centralised, independent air force, but unlike Douhet Mitchell wanted a centralised structure for all types of airpower, each given equal importance, whereas Douhet was concerned primarily with strategic bombers, any other type of aircraft was for him possibly useful but certainly secondary to the importance of the bombers. Mitchell also did not share Douhet’s view of strategic bombing being impossible to defend against. Mitchell wanted equal resources dedicated to both offensive and defensive air capabilities, and envisioned a wider role for ground attack and fighter aircraft that could be used as bomber escorts.[8] What both theories have in common however is their firm belief that air power would be absolutely vital, indeed the most important factor, in any future wars. Both men died before seeing that in the awful carnage of the Second World War, their theories were far from entirely accurate. When looking at the use of air power in the Second World War, it is clear that air power, in particular strategic bombing, did not make land and navy forces obsolete, and that both Douhet and Mitchell had both overestimated the destructive and defensive capabilities of strategic bomber aircraft. â€Å"Successful warfare still depended upon the movement of armies to occupy land, and the movement of ships to provide supplies and men,†[9] Although it played an important role throughout the War, the majority of fighting in Europe, in particular on the Eastern front was done with conventional land armies. Douhet had predicted that Britain’s mighty navy would be useless against a co-ordinated air assault, yet the British navy and merchant fleet was the lifeline supported the war effort with supplies from America and beyond. And certainly Douhet’s assertion that land forces were no longer capable of achieving quick, decisive victories does not stand up when looking at t he German Blitzkrieg campaigns between 1939-1941. In the 1930s Britain had slashed military spending, partly as a result of having to support the mass of unemployed during the great depression and partly due to an increasing anti war feeling in some parts of British Society. The exception to this was spending on Bomber Command, the part of the RAF responsible for strategic bombing. Strategic bombing offered a solution to the horrors of the First World War’s trench warfare, a decisive, relatively humane way in which to fight and end a war. Before the beginning of the war the emphasis was fortunately shifted to air defence, investing in innovations such as radar and fighter interceptors to shoot down German bombers. Following through with Douhet’s theories, as Bomber Command wished to, could have been a disaster for the defence of the British Isles, leaving them literally defenceless in the face of the Luftwaffe. [10] Both the USAF and Bomber Command continued throughout the war, as well the interwar period, to seriously miscalculate both the destructive capabilities and accuracy of strategic bombing. Technology had not solved the problems that both Douhet and Mitchell had overlooked in their theories, which failed to seriously take into account weather conditions, inaccurate targeting of enemy targets, as well as being able to ascertain which type of industrial targets would cause the most damage to the enemy’s war making capabilities. Air power theory also seriously overestimated the ease to which Bombers could make their targets without being shot down. Even after Bombers were given fighter escorts, the losses to Bomber crews were horrific. â€Å"The night bombing offensive against German cities and transportation targets between 3 September 1943 and 2 September 1944 cost the command 17,479 flying personnel killed in action or dead of wounds†[11] When considering the harm inflicted by air power theories, undoubtedly we cannot ignore the huge loss of civilian life lost in strategic bombing raids, committed by German, British and American Bomber crews against civilian targets during the Second World War. It is estimated that more German civilians were killed by allied bombing, than the combined casualty rate of British servicemen during the war, a staggering 543,000 dead.[12] At the heart of this bombing campaign against civilians was one of the most important aspects of air power theory. The theory that a targeted bombing campaign designed to kill civilians and spread terror amongst a population that would then force its Government to capitulate. The theory was fatally flawed against a totalitarian regime where citizens knew that talk of surrender was likely to get one shot. The campaign undoubtedly affected German civilian morale, yet unlike the targeted bombing against industrial infrastructure it did not significantly affec t the Nazi war making capabilities nor convince them to consider surrender whilst Hitler was in power. [13] Despite many aspects of air power theory being flawed and causing what many consider a waste of lives and resources; I believe that the broad application of air power theory by both the British and the Americans played a serious impact in their final victory over the axis powers. Both Douhet and Mitchell believed that in order to maximise the potential of air power, a nation’s air force must be independent of both the army and navy. Williams in particular promoted the idea of a centralised, independent air command for all types of air power, equal in importance and as independent as the army and navy. Despite the near legendary status of the Luftwaffe, it was primarily meant and used as a support for the army, both in the interwar period and throughout the Second World War. The Germans had a limited air strategy, the Luftwaffe lacked complete independence and was not always given the same amount of resources as the army and navy. The British and the Americans both before and during the War placed a huge emphasis on a general air power strategy, giving the RAF and the USAF operational independence to formulate an independent strategy and the huge amount of investment, personnel and resources necessary to carry out that strategy successfully. [14] The comprehensive general air strategy that Britain possessed during the Battle of Britain, with equal emphasis on offence and defence, allowed it to resist the strategically limited Luftwaffe which from the beginning lacked the scientific air power knowledge of the better supported, more independent, RAF. When the allies went on the offensive, gaining air superiority over Europe was vital in both protecting allied land forces and speeding up the advance by inflicting serious damage on German forces of any kind. Once Germany lost control of the skies they were forced back onto the defensive, unable to effectively counter attack without sufficient air cover and with in adequate defence against air power. Although we have previously criticised the civilian bombing of German cities, strategic bombing of German industrial targets undoubtedly slowed down their ability to rebuild their forces and severely hampered the Nazi war economy. [15]Although enthusiastic advocates of air power, by not following through with the main principles of air power theory, the German war machine found itself at a distinct disadvantage against the Western allies. Once USA and Britain had gained domination of the skies, as Douhet and Mitchell had insisted was vital, it was never in doubt that the defeat of Nazi Germany was inevitable. â€Å"The influence of air power on the ability of one nation to impress its will on another in armed contest will be decisive.†[16] During the final stages of the War in the Pacific, the USAF demonstrated that one of Douhet’s most controversial theories, the use of strategic bombing to target not only military and industrial infrastructure but also civilians, could effectively bring a war to an end without the need for military conquest on land. Although the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were credited for ending the war, the conventional heavy bombing of Japan actually inflicted more casualties on Japanese civilians, and played a greater part in destroying Japan’s war making capabilities.[17] Undoubtedly the effect of heavy bombing and dropping of the atomic bombs was the single most important factor in forcing political pressure inside Japan to convince the leadership that surrender was the only option, Japan could simply not continue to fight the war.[18] The atomic bombs were the only time that the Douhet and Williams theories of the destructive potential of a short, decisive ove rwhelming bombing raid that could bring an enemy to its knees proved accurate. For many academics and observers, the strategic bombing of Japan is still considered one of the greatest crimes of the Second World War. Despite the awful suffering it caused however, I would argue that it ultimately did more good than harm, preventing a military land assault on Japan that would have cost potentially the lives of hundreds of thousands of American Soldiers and millions of Japanese citizens. Even without an invasion, conventional heavy bombing would have soon equalled then surpassed the amount killed in Nagasaki and Hiroshima in a relatively short space of time, so devastating was its effectiveness. The unconditional surrender was without doubt the best thing for both Japan and America, and it might never have happened if the atomic bombs had not been dropped. In conclusion then, I believe that ultimately, for the allies, the adoption of the broader aspects of air power theory was a positive thing. Many of what Douhet and Williams said about air power did not come true in the Second World War. It did not replace armies and navies as the pre-eminent factor in warfare. It did not lead to wars being settled in a matter of days with a short, destructive bombing campaign and their predictions of the destructive capabilities and accuracy of conventional strategic bombing, with the possible exception of Japan, were to prove ludicrously optimistic. Undoubtedly however, by adopting Mitchell’s theory of creating a centralised, independent air force that was given the necessary resources to achieve its strategic goals, the United States and Britain had a massive advantage over Nazi Germany’s more limited air strategy. This advantage allowed them to eventually gain air dominance, put the German forces on the back foot and never allow them to re-gain the initiative. Strategic bombing, although causing huge civilian casualties in both Germany and Japan, played a crucial role in crippling the German war machine, and the most important part in forcing an unconditional Japanese surrender. It is for these reasons that I believe that air power theory was overall, a positive and important body of work. Bibliography Collier, Basil – â€Å"A History of Air Power† – Wilmer Brothers (1974) DeSeversky, Alexander – â€Å"Victory Through Air Power† – New York, Simon and Schuster, (1942) Douhet, Giulio – â€Å"The Command of the Air†. – Faber and Faber (1927) Hurley, Alfred – Billy Mitchell, Crusader for Air Power – Bloomington IN: Indiana University Press, (1964). Lee, Asher – â€Å"Goering – Air Leader† Duckworth (1972) MacIsaac, David – â€Å"Voices from the central blue: The Air Power Theorists† In Paret, Peter â€Å"Makers of Modern Strategy- From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age†. – Clarendon Press – Oxford (1986) Mitchell, Billy – Winged Defence – Dover Publications (1989) Murray, Williamson – â€Å"Strategic Bombing: The British, American and German experiences. In Murray, Williamson â€Å"Military Innovation in the Interwar Period.† Cambridge University Press (1998) Overy, R.J. – â€Å"The Air War 1939 – 1945† – Europa Publications Limited (1980) Warner, Edward – â€Å"Douhet, Mitchell, Seversky: Theories of Air Warfare† in â€Å"Makers of Modern Strategy† Princeton University Press (1952) 1 Footnotes [1] Douhet, G – â€Å" (1927) [2] Mitchell, B – (1989) [3] Douhet (ibid) p.199 [4] Douhet (ibid) p.157 [5] Mitchell, (ibid) [6] Warner, E – â€Å" (1952) p.630 [7] MacIsaac, D (1986) p .631 [8] Collier, B (1974) p.93 [9] Overy, R.J (1980) p203 [10] MacIsaac, D (ibid) p.633 [11] Murray, W (1998) p.99 [12] Overy, R.J. (ibid) p.207 [13] MacIsaac, D (ibid) p.637 [14] Overy, R.J. (ibid) p.204 [15] Overy, R.J. (ibid) p208 [16] Mitchell, B (ibid) p.7 [17] Overy, R.J (ibid) p.100 [18] Overy, R.J. (ibid) p.93

Neuropsychology of Language

The neuropsychological approaches are gradually leading to important discoveries about many aspects of brain function, and language is no exception. Progress has certainly been made in identifying the structure and form of language(s), its universal features, its acquisition and so on, but, until recently, this work has tended to ignore pathologies of language. More recently, neuropsychologists have begun to draw parallels between aphasic disorders and disruption to specific linguistic processes. This work provides evidence of a double dissociation between semantic and syntactic processes, and illustrates clearly that no single brain ‘language centre’ exists. The development of research tools such as the Wada test, and, more recently, structural and functional imaging procedures, has enabled researchers to examine language function in the brains of normal individuals. This work considers the various ways that scientists have examined lateralisation, and the conclusions that they have drawn from their research. The work supports the view that language is mediated by a series of interconnected cortical regions in the left hemisphere, much as the 19th century neurologists proposed. In addition, this work considers recent explorations of language functions in the brain using neurophysiological techniques. At first glance, the two cortical hemispheres look rather like mirror images of each other. The brain, like other components of the nervous system, is superficially symmetrical along the midline, but closer inspection reveals many differences in structure, and behavioural studies suggest differences in function too. The reason for these so-called asymmetries is unclear, although they are widely assumed to depend on the action of genes. Some writers have suggested that they are particularly linked to the development in humans of a sophisticated language system (Crow, 1998). Others have argued that the asymmetries predated the appearance of language and are related to tool use and hand preference. Scientific interest in language dates back to the earliest attempts by researchers to study the brain in a systematic way, with the work of Dax, Broca and Wernicke in the 19th century. Since then, interest in all aspects of language has intensified to the point where its psychological study (psycholinguistics) is now recognised as a discipline in its own right. In 1874 Karl Wernicke described two patients who had a quite different type of language disorder. Their speech was fluent but incomprehensible and they also had profound difficulties understanding spoken language. Wernicke later examined the brain of one of these patients and found damage in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus on the left. At the same time as characterising this second form of language disorder, which we now call Wernicke's aphasia, Wernicke developed a theory of how the various brain regions with responsibility for receptive and expressive language function interact. His ideas were taken up and developed by Lichtheim and later, by Geschwind. In Broca's aphasia, as with most neurological conditions, impairment is a matter of degree, but the core feature is a marked difficulty in producing coherent speech (hence the alternative names of ‘expressive' or ‘non-fluent' aphasia). Broca's aphasics can use well-practised expressions without obvious difficulty, and they may also be able to sing a well-known song faultlessly. These abilities demonstrate that the problem is not related to ‘the mechanics' of moving the muscles that are concerned with speech. Wernicke's first patient had difficulty in understanding speech yet could speak fluently, although what he said usually did not make much sense. This form of aphasia clearly differed in several respects from that described by Broca. The problems for Wernicke's patient were related to comprehension and meaningful output rather than the agrammatical and telegraphic output seen in Broca's patients. Broca's and Wernicke's work generated considerable interest among fellow researchers. In 1885, Lichtheim proposed what has come to be known as the ‘connectionist model of language' to explain the various forms of aphasia (seven in all) that had, by then, been characterised. Incidentally, the term ‘connectionist' implies that different brain centres are interconnected, and that impaired language function may result either from damage to one of the centres or to the path-In Lichtheim's model, Broca's and Wernicke's areas formed two points of a triangle (Franklin 2003). The third point represented a ‘concept' centre where word meanings were stored and where auditory comprehension thus occurred. Each point was interconnected, so that damage, either to one of the centres (points), or to any of the pathways connecting them would induce some form of aphasia. Lichtheim's model explained many of the peculiarities of different forms of aphasia, and became, for a time, the dominant model of how the brain manages language comprehension and production. Three new lines of inquiry – the cognitive neuropsychology approach, the functional neuro-imaging research of Petersen, Raichle and colleagues, and the neuroanatomical work of Dronkers and colleagues – have prompted new ideas about the networks of brain regions that mediate language. Researchers in the newly emerging field of developmental cognitive neuroscience seek to understand how postnatal brain development relates to changes in perceptual, cognitive, and social abilities in infants and children (Johnson 2005). The cognitive neuropsychological approach has underlined the subtle differences in cognitive processes that may give rise to specific language disorders. The functional imaging research has identified a wider set of left brain (and some right brain) regions that are clearly active as subjects undertake language tasks. The emerging view from these diverse research approaches is that language is a far more complex and sophisticated skill than was once thought. A universal design feature of languages is that their meaning-bearing forms are divided into two different subsystems, the open-class, or lexical, and the closed-class, or grammatical (Johnson 1997). Open classes have many members and can readily add many more. They commonly include (the roots of) nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Closed classes have relatively few members and are difficult to augment. They include such bound forms as inflections (say, those appearing on a verb) and such free forms as prepositions, conjunctions, and determiners. In addition to such overt closed classes, there are implicit closed classes such as the set of grammatical categories that appear in a language (say, nounhood, verbhood, etc., per se), and the set of grammatical relations that appear in a language (say, subject status, direct object status, etc.). The work supports a model of hemispheric specialisation in humans. While it would be an oversimplification to call the left hemisphere the language hemisphere and the right hemisphere the spatial (or non-language) hemisphere, it is easy to see why earlier researchers jumped to this conclusion. Whether this is because the left hemisphere is preordained for language, or because it is innately better at analytic and sequential processing, is currently a matter of debate. The classic neurological approach to understanding the role of the brain in language relied on case studies of people with localised damage, usually to the left hemisphere. Broca and Wernicke described differing forms of aphasia, the prominent features of the former being non-fluent agrammatical speech, and those of the latter being fluent but usually unintelligible speech. Their work led to the development of Lichtheim's ‘connectionist' model of language, which emphasised both localisation of function and the connections between functional areas. Bibliography Brook, A. & Atkins K. (2005). Cognition and the brain: the philosophy and neuroscience movement. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. Crain, W. (1992). Theories of Development: Concepts and applications. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Crow, T.J. (1998). â€Å"Nuclear schizophrenic symptoms as a window on the relationship between thought and speech.† British Journal of Psychiatry, 173, 303-309. Franklin, Ronald D. (2003). Prediction in Forensic and Neuropsychology: Sound Statistical Practices. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahwah, NJ. Johnson, M. H. (1997). Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Johnson, M. H. (2005) Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. Blackwell, Oxford, 2nd Ed. Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I.Q. (1996). Fundamentals of human neuropsychology, 4th edition, New York: Freeman and Co. Maruish, Mark and E. Moses, Jr. (1997). Clinical Neuropsychology: Theoretical Foundations for Practitioners. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahwah, NJ. Loring, D.W. (1999). INS Dictionary of Neuropsychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stirling, J. (2002). Introducing Neuropsychology. Psychology Press: New York.